Exposure and safety issues Hexavalent chromium

1 exposure , safety issues

1.1 australia

1.1.1 kooragang island, new south wales


1.2 bangladesh
1.3 greece

1.3.1 eastern central greece
1.3.2 thebes – tanagra – malakasa (asopos) basin


1.4 iraq
1.5 united states

1.5.1 history of epa’s chromium policies in united states
1.5.2 current policies in united states
1.5.3 pending regulations in united states
1.5.4 california

1.5.4.1 davenport
1.5.4.2 paramount
1.5.4.3 hinkley


1.5.5 illinois
1.5.6 massachusetts
1.5.7 missouri
1.5.8 texas
1.5.9 wisconsin

exposure , safety issues

hexavalent chromium constituent of tobacco smoke.

australia
kooragang island, new south wales

hexavalent chromium released newcastle orica kooragang island ammonium nitrate plant on august 8, 2011. incident occurred when plant entered ‘start up’ phase after completion of five-yearly maintenance overhaul. “high temperature shift catalyst began process of ‘reduction’” steam passes through catalyst bed , out sp8 vent stack. @ time lower temperatures in parts of plant caused of steam condense lower caused chromium(vi) catalyst bed dissolve liquid present. amount of condensate overwhelmed drainage arrangements resulting in emission of condensate through sp8 vent stack. leak went undetected 30-minutes releasing 200 kg of chromium(vi) atmosphere exposing 20 workers @ plant , 70 nearby homes in stockton.

the town not notified of exposure until 3 days later on wednesday morning. accident sparked major public controversy, orica criticized playing down extent , possible risks of leak.

the office of environment , heritage in stockton collected 71 samples. low levels of chromium detected in 11 of them. these 11 samples taken within 6 residential blocks close orica plant, 2 of water samples collected south of 6 block area.

the select committee on kooragnang island orica chemical leak released report on incident in february 2012. found orica’s approach addressing leak’s potential impact grossly inadequate. orica failed realize potential impact prevailing winds have on emission 60 meters high. orica failed inspect area downwind , notify office of environment , heritage until august 9, 2011. in orica’s initial report office of environment , heritage failed disclose emissions had escaped off-site. in initial report workcover orica did not disclose potential impacts on workers substance emitted chromium(vi). orica’s emergency response plan not understood employees particularly notification procedures. original notification of residents in stockton households downwind of emission failed realize potential contamination of surrounding area well. information presented @ original notification downplayed potential health risks , subsequently provided incomplete information , has led lack of trust between stockton residents , orica officials.

in 2014, orica plead guilty 9 charges before land , environment court , fined $768,000. nsw health findings ruled unlikely in stockton develop cancer result of incident.

bangladesh

toxic poultry feed contaminated chromium-based leather tanning (as opposed traditional slower vegetable tanning) entering food supply in bangladesh through chicken meat, common source of protein in country. tanneries in hazaribagh thana, industrial neighborhood of dhaka, emit around 21,600 cubic meters of toxic waste each day. tanneries generate as 100 tonnes per day of scraps, trimmed raw hide, flesh , fat, processed feed neighborhood recycling plants , used in chicken , fish farms across country. chromium levels ranging 350 4,520 micrograms (0.35 4.52 mg) per kilogram found in different organs of chickens had been fed tannery-scraps feed 2 months, according abul hossain, chemistry professor @ university of dhaka. study estimated 25% of chickens in bangladesh contained harmful levels of chromium(vi).

greece
eastern central greece

the chemistry of groundwater in eastern central greece (central euboea , asopos valley) revealed high concentrations of hexavalent chromium in groundwater systems exceeding greek , eu drinking water maximum acceptable level total chromium. hexavalent chromium pollution here associated industrial waste.

by using gfaas total chromium, diphenylcarbazide-cr(vi) complex colorimetric method hexavalent chromium, , flame-aas , icp-ms other toxic elements, concentrations investigated in several groundwater samples. contamination of water hexavalent chromium in central euboea linked natural processes, there anthropogenic cases.

thebes – tanagra – malakasa (asopos) basin

in thebes – tanagra – malakasa basin, eastern central greece, supports many industrial activities, concentrations of chromium (up 80 μg/l cr(vi)) , inofyta (up 53 μg/l cr(vi) found in urban water supply of oropos). chromium(vi) concentrations ranging 5 33 μg/l cr(vi) found in groundwater used thiva s water supply. arsenic concentrations 34 μg/l along chromium(vi) levels 40 μg/l detected in schimatari s water supply. in asopos river, total chromium values 13 μg/l, hexavalent chromium less 5 μg/l , other toxic elements relatively low.

iraq

in 2008, defense contractor kbr alleged have exposed 16 members of indiana national guard, own workers, hexavalent chromium @ qarmat ali water treatment facility in iraq in 2003. later, 433 members of oregon national guard s 162nd infantry battalion informed of possible exposure hexavalent chromium while escorting kbr contractors. 1 of national guard soldiers, david moore, died in february 2008. cause lung disease @ age 42. death ruled service-related. brother believes hexavalent chromium. on november 2, 2012, portland, oregon jury found kbr negligent in knowingly exposing twelve national guard soldiers hexavalent chromium while working @ qarmat ali water treatment facility , awarded damages of $85 million plaintiffs.

united states
history of epa’s chromium policies in united states

prior 1970, federal government had limited reach in monitoring , enforcing environmental regulations. local governments tasked environmental monitoring , regulations, such monitoring of heavy metals in wastewater. examples of can seen in larger municipalities such chicago, los angeles, , new york. specific example in 1969, chicago metropolitan sanitary district imposed regulations on factories identified having large amounts of heavy metal discharge.

on december 2, 1970 environmental protection agency (epa) formed. formation of epa, federal government had funds , oversight influence major environmental changes. following formation of epa, united states saw groundbreaking legislation such clean water act (1972) , safe drinking water act (1974).

the federal water pollution control act (fwpca) of 1948 amended in 1972 more commonly known clean water act (cwa). subsequent amendments provided basis federal government begin regulating pollutants, implement wastewater standards, , increase funding water treatment facilities among other things. 2 years later, in 1974, safe drinking water act (sdwa) passed congress. sdwa aimed monitor , protect united states drinking water, , water sources drawn from.

as part of sdwa, in 1991, epa placed chromium under list of maximum contaminant level goals (mclg), have maximum contaminant level (mcl) of 100 ppb. in 1996, sdwa amended include provision known unregulated contaminant monitoring rule (ucmr). under rule, epa issues list of 30 or less contaminants aren’t regulated under sdwa. chromium monitored under third ucmr, january 2013 through december 2015. epa uses data these reports assist in making regulatory decisions.

current policies in united states

the current epa standard in measuring chromium, in reference total chromium, both trivalent , hexavalent. however, preliminary findings water tests conducted environmental working group (ewg), suggest chromium found in hexavalent form; more toxic of two. trivalent , hexavalent chromium mentioned together, when in fact different each other. issue because hexavalent chromium can cause cancer, whereas trivalent chromium not.

in 1991, mcl chromium exposure set based on potential of “adverse dermatological effects” related long-term chromium exposure. chromium’s mcl of 100 ppb has not changed since 1991 recommendation. in 1998 epa released toxicological review of hexavalent chromium. report examined current literature, @ time, , came conclusion chromium associated various health issues.

before epa can adjust policy on chromium levels in drinking water, have release final human health assessment. epa mentions 2 specific documents under review determine whether or not adjust current drinking water standard chromium. first study epa mentioned under review 2008 study conducted department of health , human services national toxicology program. study looks @ chronic oral exposure of hexavalent chromium in rats, , association cancer. other study mentioned human health assessment of chromium, titled toxicological review of hexavalent chromium. final human health assessment in stage of draft development. stage first of seven. epa gives no forecast when review finalized , if decision made.

pending regulations in united states

in 2010, environmental working group studied drinking water in 35 american cities. study first nationwide analysis measuring presence of chemical in u.s. water systems. study found measurable hexavalent chromium in tap water of 31 of cities sampled, norman, oklahoma, @ top of list; 25 cities had levels exceeded california s proposed limits. epa limits total chromium in drinking water 100 parts per billion, there no established chromium(vi). in same year, california environmental protection agency had proposed goal of 0.2 parts per billion, despite 2001 state law requiring standard set 2005. final public health goal of 0.02 ppb established in july 2011.

as of august 2016, ewg alongside activist erin brockovich pushing epa change nationwide mcl more reflective of california standards. response comes result of resignation of top state health official in north carolina. governor pat mccrory had been attempting remove warnings against drinking water potentially contaminated hexavalent chromium duke energy coal burning facilities. confusion on regulating guidelines , health safety of hexavalent chromium within drinking water has led multiple standards. ewg s push stricter national guidelines done in hopes eliminate confusion among citizens , state officials protect health of population carcinogen.

the ewg released analysis in september 2016 of federal data nationwide drinking water tests showed seventy-five percent of samples contained hexavalent chromium @ levels higher california public health goal of 0.02 ppb. ewg estimates see 12,000 excess cases in cancer end of century if hexavalent chromium exposure in drinking water not reduced.

california
davenport

monterey bay unified air pollution control district monitored airborne levels of hexavalent chromium @ elementary school , fire department, point-source. concluded there high levels of hexavalent chromium in air, originating local cement plant, called cemex. levels of hexavalent chromium 8 10 times higher air district s acceptable level @ pacific elementary school , davenport fire department. county of santa cruz sought of health services agency (hsa) investigate findings of air district s report. cemex voluntarily ceased operations due growing concern within community, while additional air samples analyzed. hsa worked cemex implement engineering controls, such dust scavenging systems , other dust mitigation procedures. cemex made change in materials used, trying replace current materials materials lower in chromium. hsa monitored surrounding schools determine if there health risks. schools came low levels, in case of higher levels contractor hired clean chromium deposits. case highlights unrecognized possibility hexavalent chromium can released cement-making.

paramount

air quality officials taking enforcement action against 2 metal-processing plants believe contributing hexavalent chromium emissions in paramount, california.

hinkley

hexavalent chromium found in drinking water in southern california town of hinkley , brought popular attention involvement of erin brockovich , attorney edward masry. source of contamination evaporating ponds of pg&e (pacific gas , electric) natural gas pipeline compressor station located approximately 2 miles southeast of hinkley. between 1952 , 1966, chromium(vi) used prevent corrosion in cooling stacks. wastewater dumped unlined evaporating ponds. result, chromium(vi) leaked groundwater source. 580 ppb chromium(vi) in groundwater in hinkley exceeded maximum contaminant level (mcl) of 100 ppb total chromium set united states environmental protection agency (epa). exceeded california mcl of 50 ppb (as of november 2008) types of chromium. california first established mcl hexavalent chromium in 2014, set @ 10 ppb. prior total chromium standards applied.

a more recent study found 1996 2008, 196 cancers identified among residents of census tract included hinkley — lower number 224 cancers have been expected given demographic characteristics. in june 2013 mother jones published article regarding work center public integrity critical of study, , others same researcher, john morgan. comes in contrast conclusions reached epa , california’s department of public health chromium(vi) in fact cause cancer.

at time pg&e background study of chromium(vi) conducted, average chromium(vi) levels in hinkley recorded 1.19 ppb peak of 3.09 ppb. pg&e topock compressor station averaged 7.8ppb , peaked @ 31.8ppb. california mcl standard still @ 50 ppb @ completion of background study. in comparison, office of environmental health hazard assessment (oehha) of california epa, proposed health goal of 0.06 ppb of chromium(vi) in drinking water in 2009. in 2010, erin brockovich returned hinkley in midst of claims plume spreading, despite pg&e cleanup efforts. pg&e continues provide bottled watered residents of hinkley offer buy homes. other ongoing cleanup documentation maintained @ california epa s page.

illinois

in chicago s first ever testing toxic metal contaminant, results show city s local drinking water contains levels of hexavalent chromium more 11 times higher health standard set in california in july 2011. results of test showed water sent on 7 million residents had average levels of 0.23 ppb of toxic metal. california s office of environmental health hazard assessment designated nation s new public health goal limit 0.02 ppb. echoing counterparts in other cities metal has been detected, chicago officials stress local tap water safe , suggest if national limit adopted, less stringent california s goal. illinois environmental protection agency (illinois epa) has developed chromium(vi) strategic plan outlines tasks in order reduce levels of chromium(vi) in illinois drinking water. 1 of work u.s. epa provide significant technical assistance city of chicago ensure develop effective chromium(vi) specific monitoring program makes use of u.s. epa-approved methods.

massachusetts

cambridge plating company, known purecoat north, electroplating business in belmont, massachusetts. report conducted agency toxic substances , disease registry (atsdr), evaluate association between environmental exposures cambridge plating company , health effects on surrounding community. report indicated residents of belmont exposed chromium via air emissions, groundwater , soil. however, 6 types of cancer evaluated, , incidence found average, in cases, across types, if not little bit lower average. example, in kidney cancer number of observed cases 7 versus expected of 16. while case diseases, not all. incidence of leukemia among females elevated in belmont, ma during 1982–1999 (32 diagnoses observed vs. 23.2 expected). elevations in females due 4 excess cases in each time period (11 diagnoses observed vs. 6.9 expected during 1988–1993; 13 diagnoses observed vs. 8.7 expected during 1994–1999) while elevations among males based on 1 3 excess cases. atsdr deemed cambridge plating indeterminate public health hazard in past, no apparent public health hazard in present or future.

missouri

in 2009, lawsuit filed against prime tanning corporation of st. joseph, missouri, on alleged hexavalent chromium contamination in cameron, missouri. cluster of brain tumors had developed in town above average population size of town. lawsuit alleges tumors caused waste hexavalent chromium had been distributed local farmers free fertilizer. in 2010 government study found hexavalent chromium within soil not @ levels hazardous human health. in 2012, case ruled $10 million distributed on dozen farmers affected in northwest missouri area. tanning corporation still denies fertilizer caused harm. residents claim tumors direct cause chromium exposure, difficult determine other future impacts might arise exposure in specific missouri counties.

texas

on april 8, 2009, texas commission on environmental quality (tceq) collected ground water samples domestic on west county road 112 in midland, texas (u.s.), in response resident complaint of yellow water. found contaminated chromium(vi). midland groundwater reached higher levels of contamination epa mandated maximum contaminant level (mcl) of 100 parts per billion. current groundwater plume of chromium lies under approximately 260 acres of land @ west county road 112 groundwater site. in response, tceq installed filtration systems on water-well sites showed contamination of chromium.

to date, tceq has sampled water 235 wells , has installed on 45 anion-exchange filtration systems site determined centered @ 2601 west county road 112, midland, texas. tceq continues sample wells surrounding area monitor movement of plume. in addition, continue monitor effectiveness of anion-exchange filtration systems sampling on year-quarterly , filters maintained @ no cost residents.

as of march 2011, west county road 112 ground water site added national priorities list (npl) known superfund list u.s. environmental protection agency (epa). 2011 2013, tceq installed groundwater monitors , conducted groundwater sampling. in 2013, tceq began sampling residential soil , confirmed contaminated use of contaminated groundwater garden , lawn care.

according epa, ongoing investigations have not concluded source of contamination , cleanup solutions still being developed. until such investigations complete , remediation established, residents continue @ risk health effects exposure groundwater contamination.

wisconsin

on january 7, 2011 announced milwaukee, wisconsin had tested water , hexavalent chromium found present. officials stated in such small quantities nothing worry about, although contaminant carcinogen. in wisconsin, milwaukee s average chromium(vi) level 0.194 parts per billion (the epa recommended maximum contaminant level (mcl) 100 ppb). 13 water systems tested positive chromium(vi). 4 out of 7 systems detected chemical in waukesha county, , both racine , kenosha counties had highest levels averaging more 0.2 parts per billion further testing being conducted. there no further information available of october 2016.