Detention centers Reeducation in Communist Romania

1 detention centers

1.1 suceava
1.2 pitești
1.3 târgșor
1.4 gherla
1.5 danube–black sea canal

detention centers
suceava

suceava prison detention place iron guard members located in northern , central moldova, many of whom arrived here following massive arrests night of 14–15 may 1948. within prisoners group, firsts approach reeducation concept alexandru bogdanovici , eugen Țurcanu. bogdanovici had long history of legionnaire activity: first arrested in 1943, sentenced 6 years correctional detention; second sentence – 3 years – received in 1945, taking part in ciucaș mountain resistance. on last arrest, in 1948, practically leader of iron guard student community in iași. eugen Țurcanu arrested on 3 july 1948, after reported taking part iron guard meetings , member of câmpulung iron guard brotherhood. (fdc 36 câmpulung)

although @ time, siguranța inquires violent in nature, suceava reeducation process began non-violent. initiated bogdanovici in october 1948, consisted of: communist propaganda among iron guard prisoners, anti-iron guard propaganda, papers based on historical materialism theses, lectures works lenin , history of soviet union, creation of poetry , songs communist undertone. Țurcanu created organization detainees communist beliefs (odcb), structure modeled based on communist party, , supporters of reeducation registered. finally, process extended through prison, every cell containing own reeducation committee, responsible action coordination.

aside bogdanovici , Țurcanu, of initiated action @ suceava , became more involved in other prisons, several stood out: constantin bogoș, virgil bordeianu, alexandru popa, mihai livinshi, maximilian sobolevski, vasile pușcașu, dan dumitrescu , nicolae cobâlaș. motifs behind these ex-legionnaires switching sides varied, included hope of getting lesser punishment after initial generous” retribution , obtaining several facilities while incarcerated. (packages home, mail etc.) 100 prisoners joined reeducation plan april 1949.

pitești

starting september–october 1948, pitești prison designated detention facility students members of iron guard (legionaries). prison warden alexandru dumitrescu. following reorganization of securitate , creation of operational service, each prison operational bureau designated. first political officer assigned pitești ion marina.

pitești prison, location of violent reeducation, privately owned property.

Țurcanu , group part of moved pitești suceava on 21 april 1949. Țurcanu became in time informant of operational bureau, being supported iosif nemes, head of os. aware non-violent reeducation methods not efficient, legionnaire students refusing affiliate communist aggenda , intelligence data scarce, violent reeducation program initiated, @ direct proposal of Țurcanu , marina.

the pitești detention regime optimal such initiative. in second part of 1949, conditions worsened considerably: prison sections isolated , communication channels between inmates cut off. cells over-crowded , food had low caloric content. (maximum 1000 calories per day). there little none medical assistance, sanitary program done on group basis, many did not toilet in allocated time , had in own food tins, had later washed. beatings guardians common , severe penalties included solitary ( casimca ), small isolation cell, without light of ventilation, extremely cold in winter, while floor flooded water , urine. program progressed, exterior walls built around prison, , within penitenciary perimeter, inside , outside yards, far separated barbed wire fences, isolated concrete walls.

violent reeducation began on 25 november 1949, in cell 1 correction, on initiative of group led Țurcanu. reeducation ensemble , torture methods perfected in time, process did not change. @ first, 2 groups moved same room: reeducation device (shock group) , target group. apportionment of detainees inside prison cells done based on political officer s indications.

prior assembly, through prisons informant network (of reeducation ensemble part of), compromising data gathered on victims, such legionnaire membership, information hid during inquiry, anti-communist activity not declared etc. after relative calm exploratory period, during target group members questioned concerning attitude towards iron-guard movement , communist party, asked unmask , adhere reeducation movement, violence , torture followed. violent stage makarenko s explosion, , done collectively.

eugen Țurcanu, leader of pitești reeducation action.

beating ferocious, inmates clubbed or trampled unconscious, many times unrecognizable after violent treatment. tortures varied; if sole purpose humiliate prisoners, forced wear toilet bucket on head, crawl on floor or eat without using hands, later followed reach extensive physical wear, made them more susceptible crack: went days without water, forced stay in uneasy positions such lying down head raised , needle pointing of neck or remove , put shoe laces hours on end; resistant ones, total mental breakdown attempted, made eat feces, behave pigs when food provided (eat without cutlery , grunt), walk on fours in circle, each licking anus of 1 in front or behave in obscene , perverted ways during mock religious services.

during shock, after beatings , humiliation, exercised considered friends, detainees subjected disillusion: administration showed no support whatsoever. guards took part on beatings, wounded received limited medical care, in cell, not @ infirmary, , if accepted unmask (denounce) themselves. frequent inspections found prisoners severely beaten up, treated subject sarcasm, serving proof events known authorities , accepted such. way, inmates notified should not expect whatsoever, within or outside prison walls. systematic torture continued until subjects unmasked themselves.

the unmasking process consisted of several phases. first came external unmasking: detainee had confess actions hostile towards regime. phase split into:

the inside exposure: person forced reveal activities aimed against penitentiary regime , administration, since incarceration. purpose expose subversive activities , verify correctness of prisoner. process done in public, under surveillance of reeducator, , prisoners had actively involved , ask questions in turn.
the outside exposure: detainees had reveal hostile behavior prior arrest, actions may have harmed interest of communist party: subversive organizations (the resistance), activity of historical parties after dissolution, acts aimed against party members during war, espionage, etc.

the second phase represented internal unmasking, autobiography requested inmates; degree of defamation contained considered directly proportional mental shift of prisoner towards reeducation program. had present family members immoral, criminals , incestuous, in public. anti-regime actions had them imprisoned such presented being caused depraved environment educated in.

the third , last phase post-unmasking, , consisted in discussions concerning communist doctrine , practice. while during first , second phase, person had prove past left behind , loyalty stands party, purpose of third phase strengthen theoretical foundation of process.

the prisoners unmasked enlisted in reeducation mechanism , forced beat up/torture on others. occasionally, forced go through procedure again: either revealed did not confess or considered did not hit strong enough”. Țurcanu leader of reeducation group, decided on site if prisoners honest, delegated reeducation committees , assigned them prison cells, actively engaged in ongoing violence , detainees had confess in presence.

memorial plaque @ prison entrance

the prison t-shaped, , prisoners detained based on conviction type: light offences (correction) set on head of t on first floor. served long-term convictions or hard labor punishment assigned on 2 sides of t tail – first floor; targeted prison camps assigned ground floor, quarantine set in basement while in administrative detention – people on whom crime evidence not strong enough stand trial. reeducation process, started in cell 1 correction, later moved room 4 hospital – largest room, accommodate on 60 people – being main reeducation facility. in time, expand both long term conviction or hard labor punishment sections.

not able resist physical , psychical violence, prisoners tried commit suicide, severing veins. gheorghe Șerban și gheorghe vătășoiu committed suicide throwing through opening between stairways, before safety nets installed. many died following wounds beatings , tortures. alexandru bogdanovici, 1 of initiators of reeducation process @ suceava, continuously tortured until death on 15 april 1950, because considered opportunist, seeking way out of detention.

beginning 1950, operational service reorganized, tudor sepeanu replacing iosif nemeș. 1 consequence of move pitești political officer, ion marina, replaced mihai mircea. in february 1951, sepeanu in turn replaced alexandru roșianu. these changes have no consequences on detention regime, reeducation continued halfway in 1951. within period, many prisoners underwent reeducation process transferred other detention centers. negative publicity surrounding activity, official inquiry of july 1951, led colonel ludovic czeller, head of administrative control body of dgp, following of pitești prison staff dismissed or transferred (warden alexandru dumitrescu replaced anton kovacs) , relocation of pitești political prisoners gherla on 29 august 1951, led termination of violent reeducation in location. death toll of pitești reeducation: 22 dead , on 1 thousand physically , mentally mutilated prisoners.

târgșor

târgșor prison converted pupils detention center in 1948. prior this, had been military prison since 1882. divided in 2 sections, 1 pupils, other former policemen , siguranța members. first section reserved aged 16–20 years. initially, detention conditions rather light, allowed receive packages (including books) , money, while once per month guard responsible setting shopping list based on prisoners demands. food decent while prison administration – headed warden spirea dumitrescu – supportive towards them. after prison reorganization, weaving workshop built, purpose of serving work reeducation center. additionally, administration started lectures based on works of marx , engels. in time, incarceration conditions deteriorated, reaching same level other romanian political prisons.

a group of approximately 100 detainees transferred there suceava in august 1949. of those, more half joined reeducation process. set reeducation committee , approached administration, seeking both support in actions , retaliation against opposed it. march 1950, gained control on prison key positions, storehouse , workshop kitchen , post office. political officer assigned here, iancu burada @ first, dumitru antonescu later. joining reeducation optional, came series of advantages, while hostile either isolated or eliminated privileged jobs. organization – named 23 august – created in similar structure suceava odcb, counting between 70 – 120 members. reeducation activities non-violent, such reading articles scânteia or public readings communist works.

in july–august 1950, following inspection officers of securitate , minister of internal affairs, warden dumitrescu replaced captain valeriu negulescu, characterized ”savage beast”. prison section reserved former police officers moved făgăraș while incarceration conditions worse. books , personal possessions confiscated, overcoats , gloves turned in prevent escapes, daily strolls seized , food quality diminishes. new regime – educated @ jilava prison – made no distinction between reeducation followers , opponents, , beatings started.

such behavior displayed after escape of ion lupeș – november 1950 – when warden aggressed inmates:

pulled out pistol pocket, and, gun in 1 hand , club in other, hit madman. guards imitated him obedience. (...) not smear boots, guards jumped on inmates, 1 other, , kept on hitting, until went tired.

the prison gradually emptied between october , 20 december 1950. prisoners assigned either danube-black sea canal, gherla or set free. unlike pitești, târgșor reeducation process not violent, several reasons: being young, prisoners not considered having important information regarding communist resistance, reeducation action not supported administration start , prison structure (three interconnected detention dormitories) did not allow prisoners isolated in small groups.

gherla

at time when first reeducated prisoners pitești transferred in 1950 gherla, prison held approximately 1500 people. following detention allocation regulations, workers , peasants imprisoned here, , 2 work sections created: metallurgical 1 , woodwork factory, each several workshops. after reeducation initial success @ pitești, regime intended spread practice other prisons well, , due ideological reasons – workers , peasant forefront of communist propaganda – gherla amongst first detention places implement it. warden – starting 1949 – tiberiu lazăr, born in budapest of jewish origins, parents, first wife , 1 child had died @ auschwitz. appointed since spring 1949, dezideriu iacob political officer. while lazăr in charge, beatings common practice. example, in second day of easter 1950, set general beating of on 100 detainees, in prison yard.

detail icon of new romanian martyr, diaconești monastery, showing tortures @ gherla.

inmates present on list gathered , escorted in prison yard, mr. lazăr tiberiu arranged them in circle, , ordered them speed pace, placing himself in middle. ordered guard fulop martin bring him 2 clubs, used carrying food pails, , started beating inmates: on backs, feet, head, , on. felt further battered , forced , keep running. when mr. lazăr tiberiu dropped club, mr. fulop martin present him other one, prepared this.

the important informants used administration – prisoners play key role in reeducation process @ gherla, did not undergo full pitești ordeal – alexandru matei, octavian grama, constantin p. ionescu , cristian paul Șerbănescu. first pitești group – counting 70–80 reeducated detainees – arrived on 7 june 1950. group contained of prisoners active @ pitești , such recommended gherla proceedings: alexandru popa, vasile pușcașu, constantin bogos, vasile andronache , mihai livinschi. form core of gherla reeducation activity.

before triggering events, several changes made following securitate indications: iacob replaced gheorghe sucigan head of prison operational bureau (ob), , constantin pruteanu appointed deputy. later, pruteanu replaced constantin avădani. warden lazăr replaced captain constantin gheorghiu. although brutal in relations prisoners, lazăr straightforward opponent of violent reeducation, , asked tudor sepeanu written directive regarding initiative, led dismissal. meanwhile, of prisoners transferred pitești , local informant group, ob build strong informant network, controlling prison key positions, workshop leaders penitentiary hospital. end of september 1950, sucigan came bucharest carrying order start unmasking process. tested in solitary room 96, victims being ion bolocan și virgil finghiș. proceedings identical pitești ones: leader of informant network selected , grouped targeted prisoners, , @ same time defined informants infiltrate these groups. guards made repartitions based on direct indications ob. following this, pro-legionnaire environment maintained in order strengthen relations between prisoners. came shock: members of iron guard asked unmask themselves. opposed beaten , tortured until gave in. doctor viorel bărbos , assistant vasile mocodeanu – helped other inmates medical team – ones access victims, treating wounds. moving them prison hospital done if approved ob. denouncements written down in front of leaders of reeducation committee, on pieces of soap or paper bags, adjusted bo officers , afterwards sent bucharest. denouncements not confirmed on field sent prison verification.

detail icon of new romanian martyr, diaconești monastery, showing tortures @ gherla.

tortures varied: detainees forced stay in uncomfortable positions („meditation position”) long periods of time, days on end, sitting hands extended, forced eat hot food without spoon; had drink salty water or made eat feces or vomit , drink urine. during summer, kept goggles on eyes, wearing thick clothes , carrying heavy luggage, without water. tortures meant humiliate, having blow light bulb put out; painted on faces , made dance mockery.

chirică gabor describes ordeal:

after previous beating, 1 day taken in middle of cell 2 more inmates, both painted toothpaste on faces. made kiss each others ass, had finger myself , lick it. then, 2 weeks had long , exhausting physical exercises – every morning , evening – such lunges, squats , rolling on over concrete floor. had lay down on wet floor, wearing shirt, , staring @ light bulb. had in these positions, eating. dared move beaten up. 1 day took me closet , made me clean bare hands; afterwards had eat bread without being allowed wash myself. meanwhile weaved cord out of strings removed sandals , threatened hand me radiator. went staying in painful postures, beat again. beating lasted long body take it; until passed out or started bleed.”

before beatings, prisoners checked medical team, avoid deaths suffered heart related diseases. deaths occurred, doctor forged diagnostics on death certificate, indicating diseases of detainee suffered. suicide attempts occurred well: cut veins sharpened spoons, ion pangrate tried slice throat glass cell window, desperate attempts such jumping head down on cell floor or hot soup cauldron. in gherla penitentiary, violent reeducation held @ third floor, room 99 being main denouncement center (the equivalent of room 4 hospital pitești) while reeducation comities existed in several other prison cells.

a group of approximately 180 prisoners – led eugen Țurcanu – arrived @ gherla on 30 august 1950 , incarcerated in cells 103–106. join prison’s informant network , reeducation apparatus. however, since meanwhile pitești reeducation secret had been revealed , several other problems occurred – such deaths during process – led avădani ordering cessation of action. in reality, not stopped, tempered. in response this, Țurcanu conceived diversion , reeducation plan gherla prison, purpose continue unmasking process, non-violent means. plan had 3 phases:

as usual process, first stage facilitate creation of pro-iron guard group , boosting morale.
the second stage provoke unmasking of group in public gathering, isolate leaders , process them. processing meant confrontation of leaders reeducated group, purpose of changing political orientation.
the third stage consisted in indoctrination of prisoners marxist doctrine via lecturing , conferences.

the plan stopped in december 1951, @ beginning of third stage. gherla reeducation continued until february 1952, when last isolation rooms dissolved. between 500 , 1000 persons went through process, approximately 20 died result of torture.

danube–black sea canal

location of forced labor camps on danube–black sea canal site

work on danube–black sea canal started in summer 1949, following route marked black valley, stretching across northern dobruja east toward west. idea originated letter addressed stalin gheorghe gheorghiu-dej in 1948, , purpose far more economic reasons. first of all, meant social engineering project, declared aim of creating new technical , political staff. communist regime in bucharest not finance such massive undertaking; politically driven project, meant build new man”, defined marxist–leninist doctrine.

laboratory meant provide – during four-five years planned project – qualified personnel, disciplined, elevated consciousness level, politically trained, experienced designers , site managers.”

on other hand, meant final destination old political , social elite. political prisoners forced work under extremely harsh conditions, subjected extermination regime , targeted next stages of reeducation process. while emphasis set more on work-driven reeducation rather violence, 2 functioned in parallel, , great number of prisoners ended in mass graves.

twelve labor camps set alongside canal route: cernavodă (columbia), kilometer 4 (saligny), kilometer 23, kilometer 31 – castelu(castle), poarta albă(white gate), galeș, 9 culme(9 ridge), peninsula, năvodari, midia, constanța stadion și eforie nord. poarta alba labor camp prisoner distribution center, located halfway between danube , black sea. general rule, sentences shorter 5 years kept there, while sentences above threshold sent peninsula labor camp. according remaining documentation constanța regional prosecutor s fund, between 1949 , 1955 (the period when vast majority of labor force constituted of political prisoners), number oscillated following:

1949: 6,400 (1 september), 7,721 (1 october), , 6,422 (30 october).
1950: 5,382 (30 june), 5,772 (30 july), 6,400 (30 august), , 7,721 (30 september).
1951: 15,000 (6 june) , 15,609 (1 september).
1952: 11,552 (february), 14,809 (march), 14.919 (april), 17,150 (may), 17,837 (july), 22,442 (august), , 20,768 (september).
1953: 20,193 (april), 17,014 (june) , 14,244 (july).


danube-black sea canal @ murfatlar

peninsula labor camp set in june 1950, 12 kilometers away poarta alba, on shore of siutghiol lake, opposite mamaia town. consisted of several h -shaped, template shacks, made of wooden frame , battens plastered clay, covered tar paper; shack extremities reserved brigade bedrooms, while transverse, close entrance, used lavatory. people slept on fir bunks, covered mattresses filled straws. camp accommodate maximum number of 5000 detainees. during existence, several wardens succeeded in command: lieutenant ion ghinea, first warden, followed dobrescu – november 1950, ilie zamfirescu – march 1951, Ștefan georgescu – may 1951, mihăilescu – november 1951, tiberiu lazăr, former warden of gherla prison – february/march 1952, petre burghișan – november 1952 , eugen cornățeanu – july 1953. detention regime harsh. generally, wake-up @ 5:00, while program started around 6:00 or 07:00, depending on distance labor camp work site. lunch break lasted half hour , work continued earliest till 15:30. quantity , quality of food varied. in morning, soup of roast barley ( coffee ) served, alongside 250 grams of stiff, old, black bread. in afternoon , evening, tin of mashed barley or pickles soup accompanied quarter bread. food had such low caloric content, prisoners had supplement in possible way, eating captured snakes.

peninsula consisted of 6 labor sites:

the regular work site – peninsula – in proximity of camp.
mamaia, main task loading/unloading mine carts excavated gravel.

mine carts loaded in fast winded , dusted madness – tools persistently growling hell -, patchily loaded, hastily driven pits fastly emptied over, returned loading point , hastily loaded again , fastly driven again , again , again, uninterrupted twelve hours, minus lunchtime. wagon , forth fast-paced spectacle seamed take place in eerie underworld, walking dead, in colorful dressing, driving – driven unseen demons – ghostly mine carts.”

mustață ( mustache”) work site, gravel , rocks other work sites brought filling valley, targeted agriculture.
canara work site, rock excavated, broken down, crushed , loaded.
ring-creastă, soil excavated.
năvodari work site, sea shore sand loaded trucks.

in parallel, work undergone level terrain rail road , roadway flank canal. work quota 1 prisoner 3 m³ per day. had excavated, loaded wagons, transported, rolled on , leveled. detainees transferred pitești in may 1950 had load 150 kilogram able wagons , transport dirt on 100 meters. quota 3.5 m³ per day – 40 wagons necessary fulfill – being 3–4 times greater quota meant free canal workers.

those not able fulfill quota persecuted, starting reduction of food quantity, assignment additional labors after program, denial of family contact of kind , solitary. @ end of july 1950 disciplinary brigades established (brigades 13 , 14), composed of former pitești prisoners, headed iosif steier și coloman fuchs. violent reeducation initiated there. prisoners transferred form pitești , gherla, not considered reeducated, or canal workers actively opposing camp regime, transferred these brigades, tortured until unmasked themselves. 1 of violent manifestation occurred in night of 21 june 1951 (later referred – prisoners – st. bartholomew’s night) when 14–15 inmates brutally beaten in brigade 14 s shed reeducated brigadiers such maximilian sobolevschi, constantin sofronie, pompiliu lie, ion lupașcu, simion enăchescu, ion bogdănescu , others.

abuse started tudor anghel, mechanic bucharest, <<tall, dark-haired, rather skinny and, since missing teeth, hissing voice>>. bogdănescu grabbed hair left hand while right 1 started hit him rubber club, continuously swearing. [...] prisoners musical instruments started playing, , on bogdănescu’s order, newcomers tortured during unmasking session: @ first, in desultory way, while more methodical in later stage: 2 reeducated prisoners 1 person. lost consciousness, medical team – made of former medicine students, led anton (toni) nisipeanu – called. using bucket of water , towel, nisipeanu wiped blood off faces, , others moved them on bunk. <<they did not out of sympathy us, rather torturers morale. feared soften on sight of blood, , not punch sufficient vigor.>> then, tortures resumed.”

medication smuggling practiced in labor camp. drugs confiscated inmates packages , sold desperate ones on black market. pillory addressed people tried escape , refused work. there recorded cases guards framed escape scenarios , fatally shot prisoners. such achievement rewarded 15-day leave.

one of events had major influence on both canal detention conditions , reeducation process death of doctor ion simionescu on 12 july 1951. 67-year-old prisoner repeatedly tortured reeducation team, beaten up, starved registered exhausting tasks until – under claim had go toilet – headed towards camp fence, shot security guards. following this, prisoners cicerone ionițoiu , constantin ionașcu wrote , managed sneak out of camp , country series of papers reached radio ankara, via constanța. forced labor on canal site ceased on 18 july 1953. of peninsula labor force transferred aiud , gherla prisons. remaining prisoners had dismantle railroad lines , shacks , hand on towards civilian teams unfinished buildings.

due inhumane work , detention regime, death toll high. in summer of 1951, behind camp medical facility, 4–5 bodies lined on daily basis, while same death rate registered in 1952–1953 winter. investigations conducted association of former political prisoners of romania (afdpr) constanța, based on death records villages found along canal route, indicate number of 6355 canal workers (a euphemism detainees) deceased during 1949–1953 period.